Strategy And Controls In Information Security

Strategy and Controls For Dealing With Malicious Attacks and Vulnerability Every organization must focus and invest on countermeasures to deal with computer attacks and vulnerabilities. According to Beard and Wen (2009) an organization ought to balance its resources against the value of its information assets and any possible threats against them. These would work in detecting vulnerabilities, preventing attacks, and countering effects of any attacks that succeeds.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Strategy And Controls In Information Security specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Identifying the vulnerabilities and finding a way of minimizing them would work well to avoid possible attacks, and this is the best strategy. An attack is an act committed by an intruder with a wrong motive of interfering with system security. An attack on the information assets exploits the system’s vulnerability, and could damage the asset. An attack could comprise any of the following categories or a combination of any of them: Fabrications, which means adoption of some deceptions to play a trick on the unaware users of a system; Interruptions, which creates a break in the transmission channel and therefore acting as a block; Interceptions, which eavesdrops on transmissions redirecting to unauthorized user; and Modifications, which interferes or altercates with the data being transmitted. Vulnerability on the other hand is a weakness in a system that makes it possible for a harm to be caused by an attack. Threats cannot be eliminated, but it is possible to protect a system against vulnerabilities. This would minimize the chances of a threat exploiting the vulnerability. Therefore, eliminating as much vulnerability as possible is the key to protection against the risk of attack (Ludwig, 1996). Strategies of Dealing with Risks of Attacks and Threats The security plan in an organization’s information sys tem should include both proactive and reactive strategic measures. The proactive strategy involves predefined steps for preventing attacks before they occur, and involves determining the damage of a possible attack, determining the vulnerabilities the attack would exploit, and finally minimizing the weaknesses or the determined weak points for that specific threat. This has been discussed considering several threats as mentioned: Virus, Logic Bombs, Worm A virus attaches itself to software and spreads within the system and through e-mails to other systems. A worm on the other hand spreads through exploiting vulnerability in an application or operating system in a network. A logic bomb is a virus or worm that activates under set conditions, and mainly affects the application layer.Advertising Looking for essay on it? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More A virus can cause multiple damages to a system, and can lead to a huge loss of a ll necessary information. The drive or software can also crash due to virus attack. All the documents stored in the hard drive can be lost. Virus would also interrupt the surfing process of the net, exposing personal information to public. This may also affect other systems in the network. Some types of virus are able to generate Internet Protocol (IP) address randomly and send automatically. If the generated address is copy of SQL server, the virus can be fired off by the system haphazardly to other IP addresses, affecting a whole system very fast. In addition, a virus attack can also cause buffer overflow where the virus may take advantage of overflow susceptibility. The affected system will not be able to handle excessive information, therefore may shut down. Zero-day attacks are tricky since they are perpetuated before the software developer would even think of implementing a counter to a threat. Vulnerability management would assist to minimize the risks of virus attacks. This is a security and quality assurance process by software developers that comprises an analysis phase of a possible attack, the test phase, reporting to developers, and mitigation or protective measures necessary. Control Measures Zero-day protection- These are protection mechanisms found in contemporary operating systems to minimize zero day attacks. Desktop and server protection software are also recommended to counter buffer overflow vulnerabilities. White listing, which only allows known good applications access the system can effectively control against zero-day attacks. Multiple layers protection would be appropriate in case where one-layer exploit is discovered. For instance, implementing server access control, local server firewalling, and network hardware firewall. These are three layers which would complement each other in case one is compromised. Antivirus and spyware can also be used to detect any virus, worm or logic bomb attacks through scanning process, and removal by destroying the parasite files and directories. Back door Attacks This is access to a computer that bypasses any set security mechanisms. This can be done for troubleshooting by a programmer, but attackers may use it as an exploit. This would pose a security risk, since crackers would always look for a vulnerable spot to exploit. A backdoor allows an intruder to interfere with files and even delete them or change system settings. It can also degrade internet facilities affecting speed and performance.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Strategy And Controls In Information Security specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Control of Backdoors A backdoor can be found and removed by use of antivirus products. Advanced spyware removers can detect and remove backdoors by scanning. These have extensive signature databases for system parasites. Instructions on manual malware removal are also available in internet resources in cas e of an antivirus or spyware remover fails. The user can then be able to delete all files and other objects that are parasitic. Vulnerabilities A weakness in the design or operation of a system that can be exploited to compromise its security can be referred to as vulnerability. Some of the vulnerabilities encountered are highlighted below with strategies and control of dealing with them. Security Administration Systems lack security policy leading to an ungoverned information network, and therefore vulnerable to attacks. The main cause of this situation is the attitude of most PCs administrators with distaste for security administration (Vilcinskas and Niman, 2000) This can be controlled by ensuring that procedures contributing to security are predicated to elements of the policy to be firm and quite effective. This would comprise security plans and enforcement including auditing controls. In addition, security training to the staff is very crucial and should not be omitted in an o rganization. A consistent process of formal configuration management and officially documented procedures should be fully implemented. A security policy regulating the time for users logging time to the system could also be set. Architechture Single points-of-failure exist where many PCs have centralized data storage and control. Physical damage to assets may result due to permissible operation of control equipment. In addition, the leveraging of PCs and networks for emergency signals renders the system vulnerable. Other systems like security and fire are also being integrated in PCs. This increases the possibilities of disruption and intrusion (DePoy, 2003. P. 6)Advertising Looking for essay on it? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More This would require an effective control hierarchy to preclude any possible physical damage. Networks Vulnerabilities in networks include limitations caused by use of simple passwords and ill-protected links for old systems which are so vulnerable to attack. However, contemporary technologies in modern systems have also led to more risk due to massive accumulation of attacks the world over. In addition, there is uninformed trust in PCs links to faithfully transmit data with shared links that are not adequately shielded from other entities using it. Also interfaces to external systems assume the same trust on outside network. Control of these vulnerabilities due to network include protecting PCs connections over vulnerable links with encryption, substantial authentication for remote access and data protection between clients and access points. The system administrator would also demand periodic change of passwords, use of screen savers that can time out and activate the workstation lo ck, and setting a NetBios password if supported by hardware manufacturer (Warigon, 1997). Conclusion Strategies of a security plan in an organization involve predefined steps for preventing attacks. Virus, logic bombs and backdoor attacks have been analyzed in this discussion and the possible administrative and other control measures. Some vulnerabilities have also been highlighted with strategies of dealing with them and control measures. These include security administration, architecture, and network-related vulnerabilities. References Beard, D. Wen, H. (2009). Reducing The Threat Levels for Accounting Information  Systems. NewYork: New York State Society. DePoy, J. (2003). Common Vulnerabilities In Critical Infrastructure Control Systems.  Sandia, U. S. : Sandia Corporation. Ludwig, M. (1996). The Little Blackbook of Computer Viruses. Tucson, Arizona: American Eagle Publications, Inc. Vilcinskas, M. Niman, P. (2000). Security Strategies. New York: Inobits Consulting Pty Lt d. Warigon, S. (1997). Data Warehouse Control and Security. London: The ledger. This essay on Strategy And Controls In Information Security was written and submitted by user Mohammed Stark to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

The Lord of the Rings- The Return of the King essays

The Lord of the Rings- The Return of the King essays The Return of the King leads us to the conclusion of the journey of our Ring Bearer and his former company. There is a constant struggle of good versus evil throughout the novel as our characters attempt to restore peace to the Middle-earth. Fortunately many of these struggles come to prove that good will surpass evil in the end. During the novel other themes arise, such as the struggle for power, story telling, and friendship. I believe the main theme of The Return of the King is the battle between good and evil. The Return of the King has our fellowship divided. Aragorn, Legolas, and Gimli besieged in a castle as the dark forces approach, with Gandalf resurrected and trying to mount a defense. Whereas Sam and Frodo are separated deep in Saurons land. The quest to defeat Sauron seems hopeless, but with the return of the king, the powers of good shine through, and Aragorn with his armies are able to fight back Sauron and his evil army. Frodo with much help from Sam finally makes to the Crack of Doom. However, the ring has taken too strong of a hold on Frodo and he is unable to cast the ring into the fire. Instead he claims the ring and puts it on; alerting Sauron the ring is near the Crack of Doom. Gollum finds his way into the mountain with Sam and Frodo, and manages to bite off Frodos finger wearing the ring. As Gollum rejoices for the return of his precious, the inevitable force of good causes him to fall into the fire with the ring. Destroying the ring along with Sauron and winning the battle for good. Later the hobbits return to the Shire which has been taken over by Saruman. Once again good defeats evil and the hobbits take back control of the Shire. Wormtongue finally seeing the light kills Saruman. At the end of the novel Gildor, Elrond, Galadriel, Bilbo, Frodo, and Gandalf left on the white ship to the undying lands. Thus ending the Third Age of Middle-earth. Tolkien uses various literary techniq...

Learning experience of international students Essay - 1

Learning experience of international students - Essay Example In a survey conducted in 2010, 8 out of every ten international students were satisfied with the experience of studying in the UK (Ripmeester, & Pollock, 2011, p.4). The higher education administrators have successfully managed a wide range of international students’ expectations. One of the primary strategies adopted by the UK to favor international students in the country is the Prime Minister’s Initiative for International Education that was launched in 1999. (Ripmeester, & Pollock, 2011, p.6) The strategy aimed to increase the number of international students studying in the UK by checking on the quality of education for this group of students. The program has led to the establishment of different academic resources that the staff and students in institutions of higher education can rely upon. One of the academic strategies that favor international students in the UK is the inclusivity initiative. The initiative aims to provide a favorable learning environment for both the international students and other students. The institutions have also continuously engaged with the students by seeking to use their feedback in academic improvement. The international students in the country are represented in different student engagement activities that ensure that the existing academic policies accommodate the needs of foreigners in the country. Another strategic initiative by the UK higher education program is the guarantee that the information provided to the students in all academic levels is accessible, accurate, and clear across all the institutions. Clear explanation is also adopted in the delivery of courses where the use of technical terminology is unavoidable. The university and college staff in the UK has access to development and training opportunities that help them recognize, understand, and meet the needs of international students. The instructors are made to understand that they deal with a diverse global

What are the good reasons for Legalizing Marijuana This Research topic Paper

What are the good reasons for Legalizing Marijuana This topic for the Introduction should start with a question for which you have no answer - Research Paper Example Some of the benefits include using marijuana for medical cases, reducing pain and nerve disorders, leading to body and mind relaxation, reducing drug cartels and associated insecurity issues, increased income to the government, among others. The use of marijuana has been found to be effective in treating some conditions related to sensory neuropathy and pain reduction in nerves. Therefore, although cannabis has been banned in many countries, legalizing the use of cannabis may lead to major medicinal and social benefits to the society, making marijuana not only a medicinal drug but a vital component in dealing with major vices in the community. Cannabis has been found to be effective for medical use especially in offering reliable relief in certain neurological conditions, which suggests that marijuana has high medicinal values. Robson (2001) in a study of the medical value of marijuana noted that marijuana has a component that relieves intra-ocular pressure significantly. In other words, the research found some evidence on the use of Marijuana resulting in improved well-being and relief of symptoms in certain neurological cases, which included AIDS infections and certain types of cancers. Therefore, when used for its medicinal value, marijuana provides a wide range of medical benefits to patients. The drug may be used in a controlled medical context as â€Å"an analgesic and to contain intra-ocular pressures,† the result of which would be reduced anxiety and improved sleep among patients with the above conditions (Robson, 110). The use of marijuana for medical purposes was further supported in a study by Grant rega rding the effects of medicinal cannabis on painful sensory neuropathy. In the research, Grant observed that cannabis could address issues related to painful peripheral neuropathy, a condition characterized by â€Å"pain, abnormal sensations of pins or needles, numbness, coldness or heat† among

Forensic Nursing Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Forensic Nursing - Research Paper Example The students learned while on job, mostly in healthcare facilities through observation and knowledge acquisition from experienced nurses (Burgess, Berger & Boersma, 2004). The fundamental nursing program of study focuses on firm psychological and physical science base. This essential base comprises human anatomy and physiology, behavioral sciences, biology, nursing arts, theory and general humanities. In the late 20hcentury, nursing ac a course became integral in a majority of universities. This immense advancement is attributable to demands of consumers as well as the more expansive roles for nursing. Nursing practice has undergone metamorphosis with the objective of meeting the needs of the society and the shifting clients’ needs. Conventionally, nurses have been trained as generalists and nurses with immense experience in clinical settings in specific areas are considered to be specialists. A specialty or occupation involving specialty calls for a body of practical applicat ion and theoretical knowledge. These undertakings have to be of highly specialized nature. Furthermore, a specialty area is often depicted to have a legally approved certification course which assesses the achievement of set standards. Additionally, specialty can be defined as a particular area of functional and clinical nursing with a fine, comprehensive focus for safe delivery of wide range of services in that specific nursing area. Early 1980s were a hallmark of a wide range of informal and formal nursing specialty programmes in nursing. Among pioneer specialties in nursing included areas of perinatal care, oncology and gerontology. The acknowledgment of a specialist field of practice is significantly increased with the training tracks which enhance the specialization (Lynch, 2007). Towards the end of the 20th century, it was a testament that a pioneering shift towards forensic nursing education was occurring globally at the levels of diploma, undergraduate and post-graduate. Dev elopment in this nursing specialty area was however slow compared to the already well established areas like gerontology and critical nurse care. Consequently, the educational advancement of forensic nursing was probably hampered by the need to first of all have a specialty accreditation. Forensic nursing is comprised of numerous subspecialties. In all these subcategories, the principal nursing practice is to offer care for offenders and victims both living and deceased. Such clinical care is interfaced with a legal perspective. Nurses who practice forensic application in their delivery of services are entangled to other disciplines hence it can be termed as a multidisciplinary specialty area. Such an interface allows forensic nurses to navigate systems such as child welfare system and criminal justice. Additionally, forensic nurses are linked to systems of medical examiner or coroner as well as the mental healthcare system all of which depend on provision of nursing services. Each subspecialty of forensic nursing has its own unique history and role in clinical practice development. Such factors have been influenced by societal needs reforms within healthcare settings and prisons as well as public sensitivity (Sekula, Colbert, Zoucha, Amar & Williams, 2012). An elaborate literature review in the field of forensic nursing identifies the following subspecialties in the nursing field; Forensic correctional or psychiatric nursing, sex

Advantages And Disadvantages Of Ntms Economics Essay

Advantages And Disadvantages Of Ntms Economics Essay What are non-tariff measures (NTMs)? As the term implies, any policy measures other than tariffs can be included in NTMs that can impact trade flows. At a broad level, NTMs can suitably be separated into three categories. A first category of NTMs are those imposed on imports. This category includes import quotas, import prohibitions, import licensing, and customs procedures and administration fees. A second category of NTMs are those imposed on exports. These include export taxes, export subsidies, export quotas, export prohibitions, and voluntary export restraints. These first two categories encompass NTMs that are applied at the border, either to imports or to exports. A third and final category of NTMs are those imposed internally in the domestic economy. Such behind-the-border measures include domestic legislation covering health/ technical/ product/ labor/ environmental standards, internal taxes or charges, and domestic subsidies. Types of Non-Tariff Barriers The non-tariff measure include of some constraint to trade. Here are some examples of the popular NTMs Licenses A document which is issued by a national government allowing the importation of certain goods into its area is called an import license. Import licenses are believed to be non-tariff barriers to trade when it is used to distinguish in opposition to any other goods of another country so as to guard a local industry from foreign competition. The volume of import allowed is specified in each license, and the total volume allowed should not go above the quota. Importing companies can buy the licenses at a competitive price,  or simply a fee. However, it is said that this distribution method endow with encouragement for political lobbying and  corruption. certain restrictions can be imposed on imported goods as well as the amt of imported goods. Quotas A quota is a quantity restriction used in international trade, usually on imports, but it could also be on exports, focusing on licensing of the foreign trade that is nearly related to quantitative restrictions. This category includes global quotas-a system that protects domestic industries by being restrictive on the cost of international trade- and seasonal quotas. Quantitative controls on foreign trade transactions are done through one time license. Quantitative restriction on exports and imports is a direct administrative type of government regulation of foreign trade. Quotas and licenses restrict the independence of enterprises in respect of entering the foreign markets, narrowing the range of countries, and also minimize the range of countries for transaction in case of certain commodities. However, it turns out to be that the system of quota and licensing exports and imports whilst establishing firm control over foreign trade in some particular goods, happen to be more supple and of use than economic instruments of international trade regulation. This is defined by the fact, that licensing and quota systems are a key instrument of trade regulation which is an important part of the world. The result of this trade barrier is seen in the loss of consumer due to an increase in prices and limited selection of goods. An import quota controls the volume of many commodities that can be imported in a country during a specific period of time. An export restricts a certain amount of goods that can leave the country. The reason for imposing of export quota by country is due to the control of goods that is fundamental to the country and the manipulative price found on international level. Embargo   The incomplete or  entire exclusion of commerce and trade with a particular  country, in order to isolate it is called embargo.   A strong political measure imposed in an effort, by the  imposing country, to remove a given national-interest result from the country on which it is imposed is considered as embargoes. It is same as  economic sanctions and is often taken as legal barriers to trade, not to be confused with obstructions, which are usually taken to be acts of war. The same principle is used for most trade barriers: the obligation of some kind of cost on trade that increases the price of the traded  goods. If many nations repeatedly use trade barriers against each other, then a  trade war results Subsidy   A subsidy is a type of financial support paid to  a business or  economic sector. The  government makes most subsidies to  producers or distributors in an industry to stop the decline of that business or a boost in the prices of its goods or plainly to persuade  it to employ more labor. Some examples of subsidies to  encourage the sale of exports; subsidies on some foods to keep  down the cost of living, especially in cities; and  subsidies to support the expansion of farm production and achieve self-reliance  in food production Import deposits Import deposits is a type of deposit required importers to put a certain of money in an account for a significant period of time whose purpose is to guarantee that import duties will be paid, or the deposit may simply be a non-tariff barrier intended to discourage imports. Why NTMs The drastic rise in the use of non-tariff barriers stemmed largely from the WTO new rules about reduction in tariff use, which formed part of the WTOs mission to ensure free trade across the globe. While the WTO rules do allow for the use of NTBs in some circumstances, the specifications about when they can be used are very strict such that they can only be employed for purposes such as to guarantee health, safety or sanitation, or to safeguard non-renewable natural resources. Should NTMs be used for other purposes, they are deemed to be ways of evading free trade rules. Apart from the WTO, such rules, which are set to curb the use of tariffs as they are threats to free trade, are also laid out by institutions like the European Union (EU) and the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA). Another reason for the transition from tariffs to NTMs is that many countries, especially developed ones, do not have to rely on tariffs as a source of funding anymore, like they did in their early stages of development. They can afford to switch to other trade barriers that do not involve tariffs, but that still provide them with a means to regulate international trade. Moreover, NTBs allow these countries to help weak industries or provide compensation to those industries that have been adversely impacted by the WTO laws on reduction of tariffs. Also, it is a logical way for countries to respond to the reduction of tariffs since it has been declared that tariffs are no more to be used, NTBs offer traders an alternate method of influencing the market. Thus, NTBs can be quite similar to tariffs, apart for a few exceptions. After the laws of tariff reduction were enacted during the eight rounds of negotiations in the WTO and the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), those who persisted in believing in the concept of protectionism have turned to NTBs. In fact, most of the NTMs can be defined as protectionist measures. In short, NTBs can be thought of as a new means of protection which has replaced tariffs as the old method of protection. Advantages and Disadvantages of NTMs Advantages Since the main purpose of NTMs is protectionism, the advantages of NTMs will also mainly be those of protectionism. Non-tariff barriers help protect the development of new industries against foreign rivals. If foreign industries compete with domestic industries that are not developed enough or large enough yet to take advantage of economies of scale, then NTBs, such as import quotas, can protect the infant industry from too much competition through its maturing stages until it can compete on its own. Similarly, NTMs also offer protection to certain economies against foreign countries that are interested to trade with them only because they know that the domestic economies will not be able to face competition from them and will eventually collapse, leaving them a monopoly of the domestic market. An example of such unfair trading is dumping. The barriers to trade protect the domestic economies from such countries with an unfair relative advantage. It is believed that the use of NTBs can result in increased domestic employment. Since foreign firms create jobs abroad, NTBs such as import quotas, reduce imports, make domestic production rise instead, and thus create domestic employment. Also, reducing imports from countries with cheaper labour levels the competition compared to the higher wages being paid for local production. NTBs, moreover, by cutting down imports, help countries boost those local industries that are concerned with the national security and also those industries which help give the country economic independence. Disadvantages The main disadvantage of NTMs is that they hinder free trade and the benefits that accompany the latter. The protectionist aspect of NTBs discourages competition from bigger industries and also from foreign countries. While this might help domestic firms and industries to grow at first, in the long run, it in fact dampens future growth. This is because, due to the lack of competition, domestic firms can then afford to provide a narrow choice of goods to customers, to lower the goods quality, and to raise their prices. Because of this inefficient production, there is also no more incentive for the firms to strive for constant innovation and excellence. Thus, ultimately, NTBs do not help in the future growth of firms. There is another way in which NTMs drive up the prices of goods in the domestic economy. By restricting access to foreign countries where goods could be made more cheaply, more resources have to be employed domestically itself to make the same goods at a higher price. Also, while free trade allows countries to benefit from the concept of comparative advantage, the use NTMs prevents countries from enjoying these benefits. If countries specialise only in the production of goods in which they have a competitive advantage, this allows each country to produce at the minimum prices. This efficiency in production benefits all parties to the trade. However, NTMs, by restricting trade, do not help in achieving that goal. The use of NTBs can also result in trade wars. By raising trade barriers against a foreign country, the latter can decide to do the same in retaliation. The imports and exports of both countries are thus restricted, and this greatly reduces the markets open to them, lowering their scope for growth and efficiency. If many countries across the world engage in these trade wars, global trade and economic activity will suffer drastically. These retaliations can also quickly spread beyond the source of conflict and affect the countries other economy policies as a way to retaliate. It can be seen that all participants can take advantage of free trade through efficiency of the market, for instance, increased choice and reduced prices. However, non-tariff measures also have their uses and are necessary in certain conditions. There must be a balance between the quest for efficiencies and the use of barriers to trade. EFFECTS OF NON-TARIFF MEASURES (NTMS) Effects on trade It is generally assumed that NTMs have negative effect on trade, even if it has been elusive for quantitative assessment. Sometimes, these policy measures are referred to as barriers, when the emphasis is made on the difficulties an exporter may have to comply with them. In fact, NTMs can hinder exports for countries or companies when they are not able to pay the cost of adapting their product or production process to the norm of a trade partner. Then, another less competitive exporter may be able to take on a restrictive market if it complies with that regulation. NTMs would be trade distorting in this case. However, NTMs may also facilitate trade when they reduce asymmetries in information between consumers and producers, for example about the quality or safety of the product. The effort of complying with NTMS could also help countries to upgrade capacities, (or mitigating institutional deficiencies for monitoring and enforcing regulations, in words of van Tongeren, Begin, Marette, 2009) in which case the ultimate development impact is positive for the exporting country. On the importing countrys side, NTMs could reduce negative externalities, for example in the case of environmental threat or food safety. Effects on Price A quota is defined as an upper limit on the number of units of a commodity that can be imported into a country. When such a restriction is imposed, domestic consumers are prevented from buying an imported good, the supply of which is no longer perfectly elastic as it would have been in a free trade situation resulting in a rise in the price of the product. This can be better explained using a demand and supply diagram as follows: In a situation where there is free trade and no barriers to trade are imposed then at the world price of wp domestic producers will supply Q1 and Q1-Q2 will be imported, i.e, equilibrium quantity will be at Q1. The supply curve to the domestic market will be denoted by the curve ABws. The effect of imposing a quota will be to limit the amount of imported goods. Let us suppose that the quota cut imports from Q1-Q2 to Q1-Q3. A new supply curve can now be drawn incorporating the amount of the quota (Q1-Q3). The world price wp no longer acts as the supply curve but instead the latter is represented by the curve ABCSS. we can nothe that the new equilibrium will be at E and the new equilibrium price will be at pq. It is clear that price has risen from the implementation of quota. This is explained by the fact that the supply of the commodity is now restricted causing a slight increase in the price of the commodity. The extent of the increase will depend on the quota imposed. The lower the quota, the higher will be the price. A simple example can be taken to explain the above theory. Suppose you have milk imported freely into a country and account for 50% of the domestic demand. If government imposes a quota on the amount that can be imported, the supply of milk will fall giving rise to a shortage. This shortage will exert pressure on price which will finally rise to eliminate that shortage and restore the equilibrium. Effects on society Another measure is embargo. This is a complete ban on imported product. Such a measure can be imposed to protect the society as whole. For example, a country may ban or severely curtail the importation of things such as harmful drugs, pornographic literature and live animals. Had embargoes not imposed on such products, society would suffer enormous damage as they have high level of negative externalities Effects on multinational Import quotas generally have a negative impact on multinational companies. These enterprises such as Nike and General Motors are intensively engaged in international trade as domestic consumption only cannot meet their high targets. When a quota is imposed on their goods by a major buyer, MNCs must find other markets to supply their products, otherwise they will have to cut production and profits figure will suffer. Effects on employment However, import quotas affect positively domestic employment. The fall in imports will divert demand to local suppliers and the latter will have to increase production to cover the gap which foreign products used to occupy. This applies to domestic supplies that have the capabilities and were unable to compete internationally. In order to boost production, they will have to recruit more people. This will have a multiplier effect in the economy giving rise a lower unemployment rate and higher economic growth. How globalisation is affecting NTMs? Globalisation is a process by which countries are linked altogether in a peaceful manner as view to only one planet. In technical terms, it is described as being a process by which national and regional economies, societies and cultures have all been united via global network of trade, communication, immigration and transportation. Hence a worldwide movement towards economic, financial, trade and communications integration. Recently, globalization expanded its field to other activities such as social areas. At present, globalization also considers culture, media, technology, socio-cultural, political and biological factors. The evolving nature of NTMS has gained an important place in international trade today. More recently, it has been considered in the annual World Trade Report of 2012. Most trade agreements clearly speaks of tariff reductions whereby leaving less than halfway entrance for NTMs. It has nonetheless the capacity to reduce the effectiveness of tariff reductions upon agreement. NTMs have ever since in its introductory mode been driven by multiple policy motives and are still subject to change. These policies in themselves have evolved through the years as countries forged agreements and became interdependent through globalization. NTMs has become a necessity not only to protect domestic industries but to the globalized world as a whole. Globalisation raised changes in countries among which are increased social awareness, growing concerns regarding health, safety and environmental quality which led to increase in NTMs. For the better understanding of the impact of globalization on NTMs, trade in goods and services were considered. Examples of regulatory measures are Technical Barriers to Trade and Sanitary and Phyto-Sanitary measures in goods and regulations in services which have recently cropped up. These measures do not have a direct influence on trade but have a strong influence on trade agreements and amount of trade between countries. Some say that NTMs have been encouraged via globalization for a viable peace. Public policy can thus enhance trade flows in a positive or even negative way. Trade in services has evolved in recent years and is no longer similar to traditional trade. New policies came into fo rce to handle these new trends. Globalisation relates to WTO. Trade in services has the relatively same importance as trade in goods for good networks between countries. The WTO knows they hold the same weight in international production affairs and hence measures to restrict trade and competition in the services market that could affect more than the sector directly concerned. Examples where cases are most suited are infrastructural services, spill-over effects on other services and goods. Unlike in the past when NTMS role were solely to protect domestic producers from foreign competition, nowadays NTMs are more to do with public policy objectives. These policies not only consider protectionism but also take precaution measures. In the sector of health and environmental services, NTMS were recently boosted in numbers. NTMS were found not to be an easy task to be observed and quantified, however with globalization, WTO observes that NTMS are meant to have a long stay with their several arrangements between countries which adds to the main agreements. The emerging in change of NTMs with time is not protected against negative effects. NTMs may in other words reduce benefits gained from the main agreement, for example negate some tariff reductions. Moreover, non-tariffs measures have a long list of measures which are also difficult to quantify and also sometimes are invisible in the agreements. In addition to that, those measures are not regular to all countries that it is served and to that, their effect sometimes bring distortions in agreements between sectors and countries. Globalisation is known to have brought changes or complete change in more than one country structure and future. It has greatly changed policies of countries and to that NTMs continue to be evaluated and are still expanding. Quoting from the WTO Director General: Regulatory interventions addressing market failures and international spillovers, with inevitable consequences for trade flows and investments are here to stay. The foremost thought, hence, of NTMs is that it will not have a decreasing or reducing effect on the tariffs agreements between countries. As deducted from above, globalization does not only bring positive results onto a country trade flow. As globalization strengthens alliances amongst nations, NTMs continue to be on the rise in their arrangements. NTMs may also be used as a tool to restrict trade flows in the case of where some countries might be oligopolies of certain commodities on the global market. Technical Barriers to Trade and Sanitary and Phyto-Sanitary measures is said to be the source of last resort for some developing countries since it impacts the worst results on them. The reason is that these countries may be differently structured and may not be able to meet those criteria mentioned in the measures. Though, globalization intensify the relationship between countries does bring both good and bad results, harmonious plans between countries may help to reduce the negatives effects. Globalisation has neared most of countries and consequently has brought help where such measures were not easily identified. In simple terms, it has allowed experiences to be shared in recognition and quantitation. In the light of the above, globalization not only brought amendments in NTMs but also has greatly influenced its use in countries. NTMs Measurement Measuring non-tariff barriers remained one of the confusing answered questions for a long time enough. This is mainly because of their inconsistency in countries where they are applied. As these by themselves cannot be measured, their affiliations are quantified to give a result as the measurement of NTMs as a whole. Typologies of the affiliations are: frequency measures, price-change measures, quantity measures, rates of assistance, and indices deflators. A brief discussion of these measures is now to be listed and considered below. Frequency measures Laird Yeats (1990) exposed two frequency measures, namely, frequency ratio and import coverage ratio. Both of them are based on calculation of ratio of commodity lines subject to at least one NTM in total number of lines for the respective group of trade flows. The frequency ratio can be calculated by formula: where Ni is category i of commodity in trade group; Di is dummy variable, Nt is general number of categories in trade group, i.e. i = 1,,T . Dummy variable is used as indicator of NTM: where Di = 1, in good in category i is subject to at least one NTM; otherwise Di = 0. In import coverage ratio, value of imports of commodities subject to at least one NTM is used as a weight instead, unlike the frequency ratio. That way, time factor is considered and it also helps to evaluate the importance of the NTM for the whole trade. B. Price-change measures NTMs often influence price and cause change. Under this section, a measurement on evaluation of changes in price due to the introduction of NTMs is considered. Unlike other measures, it allows direct comparison between impact of tariff and non-tariff trade barriers. Price-change measures are commonly used in international trade theory and a formula was derived; influence of trade restrictions in terms of price and quantity changes. Deardorff Stern (1997) used the most known type of price-change measures which is tariff equivalent. In other words, it is calculated as growth in commodity price before and after use of NTMs. Despite all its positive characteristics, price change as a sole indicator for NTMs of a country is not sufficient. Moreover, the impact of NTMs on change on price is difficult to be taken out of any factors affecting prices. C. Rates of assistance Rates of assistance can be broken down into two types; nominal and effective rate of assistance. Nominal rate of assistance is founded on calculation of a rise in the gross returns from production resulting from protective measures. The effective rate of assistance is the most commonly used and can be calculated as follows; ; where VAN is value added in case when the NTM are applied, and VAB is value added under free trade. These measures fit theories perfectly, nonetheless have drawbacks as it requires mass information that is not always available. The effective rate of assistance is faced with another problem which is to differentiate between the different NTMs in its calculation. D. Indices deflators Anderson and Neary were the first ones who brought the application of trade barriers to both tariffs and non-tariffs measures. They constructed two indices; mercantilist trade restrictiveness index and trade restrictiveness index. These are defined as deflators and when applied to undistorted prices are to produce the same trade volume (mercantilist index) or same real income (for trade restrictiveness index) as the initial set of trade distortions (Anderson Neary, 1996; Anderson Neary, 1999). Application of this method, however, yields problem of collection of necessary prices and differentiation of the impact of NTM from other changes. To summarize all measures are good enough for measurement of general NTMs level in a country. However, criteria, benefits and drawbacks of the different methods must be cared when choosing for specific countries. Conclusion GATT takes on a particular and modest approach to handling NTMs. That approach developed over time, and with the formation of the WTO, the handling of NTMs evolved further still.   Tariffs for goods production were decreased during the eight rounds of negotiations in the WTO and the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT). After reducing of tariffs, the principle of  protectionism  demanded the introduction of new NTMs such as technical barriers to trade (TBT). Increasing consumer demand for secure and environment friendly products also have had their impact on increasing popularity of TBT. Many NTMs are administered by WTO agreements, which originated in the Uruguay Round, as well as GATT articles. NTMs in the field of services have become as significant as in the field of usual trade. The requirement to protect sensitive to import industries, as well as a wide range of trade restrictions, available to the governments of industrialized countries, forcing them to resort to use the NTM, and putting serious obstacles to international trade and world economic growth. Thus, NTMs can be referred as a new of protection which has replaced tariffs as an old form of protection.

Turning Back Time Essay -- Biology Essays Research Papers

Turning Back Time Progeria, an extremely rare disease caused by a slight genetic defect, victimizes every 1 in 4 million children. , (3). At the moment, there are twelve cases of Progeria in the US, and no more than one hundred have been reported around the world. While the child suffering from Progeria will appear to have no symptoms at birth, the tell tale signs of the fatal disease will begin to surface within a few months, (1). The common first symptom of a child who may be a Progerian is that the ends of their shoulder bones will be re-absorbed into their bodies. Soon, he or she will be underweight and undersize for his or her age. Hair loss and dental decay will follow. The disease slowly eliminates body fat. Eventually the Progerian will become afflicted by arthritis and take on the appearance of a person five to ten times their age, (6).On average, a Progerian will live to be thirteen. Usually their death will be due to a cardiovascular disease such as heart attack or stroke. Over the past four years, a lot of progress has been made studying Progeria. Researchers have concluded the cause of this disease is most likely due to a "single letter misspelling in the genetic code on a single chromosome, which is a coiled strand of DNA within the cell". After examining twenty Progerians, eighteen were found to have the same genetic abnormality. The 19th case had a similar 'misspelling' in a nearby gene. The 20th case did not have "classic Progeria", (2).The gene which was found to be abnormal in eighteen of the cases, is responsible for making the protein called 'lamin A'. If this protein is defective, premature cell death occurs. This protein structures the inner layer of membrane surrounding the nucleus. Each Progerian e... ...theory of evolution could be found on the cover of a Hallmark birthday card. References 1)Medlineplus, General information about health problems and diseases http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/001657.htm 2)Progeria Research Foundation, One of the few websites dedicated to the study of Progeria http://www.progeriaresearch.org/links/links.htm 3)Progeria Project, Provides articles and information about Progeria http://www.progeriaproject.com/Archive/articles.htm 4) Link from Berkely University Website, Interesting facts about lifespan http://www.cgfi.org/materials/speeches/berkely_address.htm 5) USA Today, Article about Progeria http://www.usatoday.com/news/science/2003-04-16-agin-gene_x.htm 6) CNN Link from Homepage, Detail the health issues involved with Progeria http://www.cnn.com/2003/HEALTH/conditions/04/17/aging.gene/